A World of Fabric. How Textiles Connect our Societies

Textiles Connect Our Societies Textiles are ubiquitous in our life. They are a necessity and a luxury as well as a reflection of social status, political position and us as humans in general. Moreover, textiles and trade in them have long governed peoples’ coexistence. Trade in cloth has connected distant territories for centuries. The textile industry was and is a major factor of European economic development. The commodity cloth connects our societies – with all the implications: The textile industry stands for market economy, innovation and prosperity. It is, however, increasingly the subject of criticism too: as a driver of climate change, as the cause of extensive environmental pollution and waste of resources, and as an exploitative industry. Good quality, good work, good use, good trade: What is “good stuff” or “good cloth” to us? We invite you to examine this question in the exhibition.  

FROM THE HANSE ERA TO THE PRESENT A Common Thread Since the Middle Ages?

Trade relations were complex in the Middle Ages and the economic and social challenges were just as big as today. The history of the Hanse is thus well suited for examining textiles as a social issue. Textiles were part of Hanse merchants’ everyday business. They connected supply and demand in Northern European markets. The Hanse dominated the far-flung textile trade through its trade policy for centuries. We discuss “good cloth” from the first consumer revolution in the fourteenth to sixteenth century down to the present, the age of fast fashion. The textile trade of the Hanse era and our modern world prove to have more in common than one might think.  

FUN FACTS Off the Rack

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Human and Cloth. A long Story

9000 v. Chr. 9000 BC, people start weaving cloth out of plant fibres. Weaving is thus one of the oldest human technologies. In 5000 to 332 BC, specialised production of linen for clothing is developed in ancient Egypt, ultimately because of demand for mummification. In 115 BC to the 13th century AD, the ancient “Silk Road” connects distant economic regions. Wool, gold and silver from the West are traded for precious silk in the East. In the 12th to 16th century, commercial textile production in Europe also grows as the population and cities grow. Leading producing regions are Italy, France, the Netherlands and England. Early bulk trade in woollen and linen cloths develops. Globalisation dominates the 17th to 19th century – ultimately because of cloth! Printed cotton fabrics from India corner markets and connect Asia and the Old and New Worlds. So-called indiennes are increasingly not only imported but also produced in Europe because of the tremendous European demand. Starting in the second half of the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution fundamentally changes production processes and labour. Industrial mass production ushers in social change. Trade in ready-made garments steadily grows. In the 20th century, synthetic fibres change the world. Rayon, which is made out of chemically processed natural resources (such as wood), is developed first. In 1935, nylon becomes the first synthetic fibre to be patented. Since the 1990s, fast fashion and now ultrafast fashion have stood for an accelerated fashion industry, which is now being heavily criticised because of high resource consumption and poor labour conditions for short useful life. 

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COLOURFUL CITIES The Consumer Revolution of the Middle Ages

The approach to textiles changed fundamentally in the fourteenth century. People displayed their wealth with colourful clothing, especially in burgeoning cities, such as Lübeck. The colourful fabrics for this came from far away in part. The widest range of quality existed for every budget. Textile consumption took its first steps toward being a mass phenomenon. The Middle Ages also marked the birth of fashion. There had been changes and innovations in clothing earlier but the speed accelerated then and all classes joined in. Spending on clothing rose. That had impacts on social interaction: Clothing no longer readily indicated estate and status. Critics viewed fashion and “luxury for everyone” as dangerous extravagance. The social impacts of the so-called consumer revolution of the Middle Ages are the subject of heated debate.  

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EVERYDAY CLOTH Wool and Linen for Tunics and Shirts

Woollen cloth and linens clothed the urban population from head to foot. Outerwear was usually made of woollen cloth – it is weatherproof and warm. Undergarments were always made of linen. The material does not scratch and is comfortable on the skin. Differences in cloth quality indicated who was able to afford something good. Good cloth had sometimes travelled long distances before being made into clothing. Anyone with money had a choice of a variety of trademarks: Lübeck merchant Hinrik Dunkelgud dealt with at least eighteen types of woollen cloth. He offered the widest range of qualities, from luxury cloths from Bruges to plain cloth from Braunschweig. The range of linen was large too. Linen cloths from Westphalia, Holland and Flanders were particularly in demand. [More on Consumption Revolution](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/konsum_mode_03/)

MADE TO MEASURE The Middle Ages were Fashionable Period!

The production of clothing was a rather simple process for a long time. A few seams joined trapezoidal, triangular or rectangular blanks. Complicated cutting techniques started spreading in the fourteenth century. Then, skirts and bodices, for instance, were tailored separately and not assembled until the end. These Innovations were the cue for changing fashion trends. New cutting techniques meant more diversity and individuality in attire. The bigger the budget was, the better the fit and material were. The upper class wore the latest trends made of the best cloth with the most intense dyes. Less welloff city dwellers took advantage of less expensive materials and cuts to join in current fashion trends.

LUXURY FOR EVERYONE? Urban Dress Codes

So-called dress codes or sumptuary laws accompanied fashion: From the fourteenth century onward, city councils in many places regulated households’ expenditures for women’s clothing and accessories based on income brackets. Offences were punishable by a fine. Why did municipal governments consider such laws necessary? On the one hand, they were intended to prevent extravagance. At the worst, unnecessary consumption could endanger livelihoods. For instance: Lübeck’s laws of 1467 valued a dress set with pearls at 60 marks – a scribe’s annual wage and thus a small fortune. On the other hand, clothing had previously had the important function of providing information about an individual’s social status. Dress codes were thus intended to help preserve the world’s order. Their provisions were virtually unenforceable, though, as contemporaries attest. All the same, sumptuary laws were enacted repeatedly.[More on Luxury Regulations](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/konsum_mode_05/)

SHEATHED IN SILK Fine Cloths in the Middle Ages

Cloths such as silk and brocade, as well as dyes, such as kermes, signified absolute luxury in the Middle Ages. For a long time, only nobles and church dignitaries were allowed to wear such cloths and dyes. Official clothing made from them reflected social status. Gold and silver threads and fur trim adorned the higher estates’ sumptuous garments. Status was displayed with cloth in cities too. Lübeck’s sumptuary laws of 1454 attempted, for instance, to restrict the wearing of silk and sable and marten fur to the upper class. Silk was nevertheless ubiquitous in urban fashion. Rich burghers liked to deck themselves out with sleeves, belts and accessories made of the precious cloth. Anyone who could afford it, also had clothing and shoes adorned with silk embroidery.Glossary Silk fibres are obtained from the cocoon of the silkworm pupa and spun to fine threads. The heart of mediaeval silk production was located in Byzantium as well as the Islamic centres of the Mediterranean region and, as of the twelfth century, Italy too. Brocade is a fabric with patterning, which can be made of different fibres. The elaborate patterns are woven with an additional “brocading weft”, which is limited to the motif and often also interwoven with gold or silver threads. Kermes is an expensive dye extracted from scale insects. This red is made out of the female insect’s unlaid eggs. [More on Silk](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/konsum_mode_06/)

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CLOTH FOR EVERY PURPOSE From Sails to Handkerchiefs

Just as today, cloth was used in every sphere of life in the Middle Ages. No household was without cloth: tapestries, pillows, bedsheets, curtains, tablecloths and towels made a home comfortable. Textiles had wide ranging uses in trade too: Cogs, caravels and the like needed sails and ropes; precious goods were often wrapped up in coarse cloth. The social significance of cloth became apparent on special occasions. A bride – as records from Stralsund around 1400 recount – strode along almost 250 metres of precious woollen cloth on her way to the church, demonstrating her family’s importance. Cloth ultimately played a role politically. Fine cloths were always an appropriate gift at diplomatic occasions.

VAST QUANTITIES OF CLOTH The Textile Industry of the Hanse Era

Virtually every city had one textile guild. A piece of cloth was the outcome of numerous specialised stages of work, from spinning down to finishing. Coordinating them was no small task. The method of textile production hardly changed up until the Industrial Revolution: The most important innovation was the horizontal treadle loom in the twelfth century, which enabled more consistent and faster weaving. Various models for organising production enabled individual weavers to mass produce long before the factory age, notwithstanding simple equipment and manual labour. Prominent production centres thus produced tremendous quantities of cloth for export trade. Approximately 25,000 pieces of the top export “Leiden cloth” were produced every year around 1500, roughly corresponding to 700 kilometres of cloth!  

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THE WORK OF MANY HANDS. The Long Process from Raw Material to Cloth

Many steps were necessary before weaving: Sheep had to be shorn first to make wool thread. Afterwards, the raw wool was washed and carded. Harvested flax plants had to be threshed and heckled to make linen fibres. Wool and plant fibres could only be spun and finally woven after this arduous and time-consuming step. Once woven, the fabrics would be labouriously finished. Fulling thickened the woollen cloth, making it windproof and waterproof. Shearing made cloth smooth and uniform. A bath in a mordant, bleach or a dye gave it the desired colour.Glossary Carding: Raw wool is smoothed, combed in one direction and thus prepared for spinning. Dried teasels were used to do this for a long time. The term “carding” is derived from their Latin name Carduus. Heckling: Raw flax fibres are drawn through an iron comb. This separate and straightens the fibres with uniform fineness. Fulling: Pounding and hammering felts the fibres on the surface of woollen cloth. This thickens the cloth and it absorbs water less easily. Shearing: The raised fine hairs of felted woollen cloths are cautiously cut off to obtain a smooth surface. Mordanting: A bath in a mordant prepares cloths for subsequent dyeing. The mordant ultimately enables fibres and dyes to bind permanently. Bleaching: Soaking in a liquid bleach chemically lightens or entirely removes the frequently undesired colouring of natural fibres. [More on Dyeing in the age of Hanse](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/produktion_02/)

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GOOD CLOTH – GOOD WORK? Working Conditions and Wage Undercutting in the Middle Ages

Many specialised trades were involved in one piece of cloth. Every processing step contributed to the ware’s quality but also incurred labour costs. Urban labourers were more expensive than rural ones. Work in towns was bound to membership in the corresponding guild. The guild council oversaw its members’ work and took care of protecting them financially too. Rural craftsmen were not organised in guilds and worked for lower wages. This produced a wage gap between urban and the rural areas. Merchants exploited that repeatedly. They attempted to relocate cloth production to rural areas to cut production costs and boost their profits. Prosperous master weavers took advantage of the low wages in the countryside too by subcontracting. The urban weavers’ guilds complained about such “wage undercutting” on a regular basis. Occupational safety did not exist: The dyer’s profession was hazardous to health. Smoke and fumes from mordant and dye harmed the respiratory tract. Moreover, constantly working in cold running water was conducive to rheumatic disorders. [More on wage contracts](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/produktion_04/)

THE GREEN MIDDLE AGES? Textile Production and the Environment

Many resources are needed to make textiles. Although environmental awareness in the modern sense did not exist in the Middle Ages, people were aware of the finiteness of resources and normally sought to use them efficiently. All the same, a large-scale textile industry had repercussions: Forests gave way to pastures. England, for instance, was the most important supplier of high-grade wool for centuries. The English countryside is heavily dominated by sheep farming to this day. Cloth production entailed water and air pollution too. Dyeworks used minerals, plants and urine in the dyeing process. The waste water and fumes produced were released into the environment. [More on Humans end Environment in the Middle Ages](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/produktion_06/)

FROM PRODUCT TO WARE How Cloth Became an Export Commodity

Not all cloths taken from the loom at the end of their production were also suitable for export. A successful type of cloth was distinguished by having a particular and consistent quality and being regularly available in large quantities. Merchants and municipal governments consequently regarded standardisation and quality assurance in the textile industry highly. This made individual woven items a sought after “trademarked good” in export trade. How did a single individual’s labour become a mass-produced product, though? Three models for boosting production were popular in the Middle Ages: In the guild model, a city’s weavers organised themselves. In the putting-out system, a financially strong agent coordinated production. The “show” or trade fair was organised by a city. These forms of mediaeval mass production can also be called proto industry. [More on the putting out system](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/produktion_07/)

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A FRAMEWORK FOR TRADE The German Hanse’s Contribution to Northern Europe’s Textile Trade

Trade activities with cloth were the order of the day in Hanseera Northern Europe. The farther flung trade was, the more it needed collective general terms and conditions and problem-solving strategies. This is what the German Hanse was there for: It defined the terms and conditions for optimal trade for Hanse merchants and was thus an economic interest group. Cloth was ubiquitous in Hanse economic policy: Trade privileges secured good basic trade conditions. The German Hanse also partly dictated which trademarks were permitted to be traded in the first place. Collective Hanse ordinances fostered and demanded product standards. The German Hanse’s trading posts and cities formed a communication network against product defects and fraud. The German Hanse influenced individual merchants’ trade in manifold ways. [More on the framework fpr trade](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/handel_02/)

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A NETWORK OF THREAD The Textile Trade of the Hanse Era

Textiles were being traded over great distances already in the Middle Ages: Asian silks reached Europe. European woollens travelled as far as the Volga, deep in present-day Russia. Mass production of woollen and linen cloth was concentrated in North-western Europe. The production centres responded to trade, changing economic situations and demand. Hanse textile trade connected the leading producing regions with all parts of the Hanse trade network. Hanse merchants purchased cloths for their export trade, primarily through their branches in Bruges and London. They also introduced cloths from their own towns in export trade. The textile trade included trade in wool, dyes and mordants – the textile industry was a broad commercial sector.  

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TRADEMARKED WARES Sealed Quality, Imitation and “Good Stuff”

Cloth had to be a trustworthy trademark to be successful in export trade. “Trademarked” cloths bore the name of their places of production. Merchants could identify cloths by attached city seals or stamps. These emblems furnished information about the cloths’ quality. A trademark could additionally be identified with little effort based on the selvage and folding. The trustworthiness of trademarks was important in trade. They guaranteed a type of cloth was a proper “merchant’s good” along trade routes stretching hundreds of kilometres. Copying successful trademarks was common mediaeval “marketing” practice. Imitating old varieties well-established in export trade provided new products access to the export market and boosted their sales prospects. There was no fraud as long as imitations bore their own seal, merely competition.  

THE VALUE OF THINGS From Luxury Item to Mass-Produced Product

Textiles were already a social issue in the Middle Ages: Luxury and the extravagance of textiles were discussed as dangers to society. Sustainability in the sense of environmental protection, on the other hand, is a modern issue. Cloths and clothes were used and reused for very long periods up into the last century. All the same, people also liked buying and buying a lot in the Middle Ages. Pleasure in unlimited consumption of textiles had existed back then, but not always the financial resources for it. Textiles transformed from valuables into mass produced products as prosperity grew and production costs dropped. Consumption is expected and encouraged in our present-day growth-driven and affluent society, at the expense of the environment: The textile industry is the second biggest polluter in the world. It currently accounts for ten percent of global greenhouse gas emissions.  

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TILL DEATH DO US PART Cloth’s Long Life

Cloth was a valuable in the Hanse era. Wearing and handing down clothes was common for a long time. A decedent’s wardrobe was bequeathed to family or relatives. Worn garments were left to servants or the poor. Textiles were thus continually given a new use for generations. In addition, worn clothing could also be resold. That provided poorer segments of the urban population in particular access to good quality second-hand merchandise. Making new out of old and recycling were normal in the Middle Ages too. A wealthy burgher’s robe could be made into a splendid liturgical vestment! Tattered and no longer wearable clothing additionally served as a valuable raw material. Paper was made out of such rags and remnants up into the nineteenth century.  

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THE PLEASURE OF BUYING The Transition to the Modern Consumer Society

Material needs have accompanied humans through the ages. Consumption has been accelerating since the sixteenth century. One reason for this is a cultural change toward asserting the “material self”. Shopping has become the recreational activity of those who can afford it. Consumption is important for participation in society. Readymade clothes affordable for broad segments of the population were also being industrially mass produced at the end of the eighteenth century. Lower labour costs in particular permitted a variety of affordably priced products. This trend has continued to this day. The textile industry has become noticeably more global since the second half of the twentieth century. Production has migrated to countries with usually weak government controls. Lower and lower priced products are being brought to market and are available in abundance.  

FAST, FASTER, ULTRAFAST Today’s Fashion is Tomorrow’s Trash

For many, clothes have become an always available mass-produced product and are Rarely still an object of value. We are living in the age of ultrafast fashion. The number of new garments purchased has risen steadily in the last twenty years. Wear life has declined. Cloth is rarely still handed down today. New items are too affordable and the quality of used items is too poor. The pace of textile production has grown almost dizzying. Ultrafast fashion has turned what were originally four collections a year into countless micro-collections: something new every week. Such “throwaway fashion” has become the subject of much debate. The consequences of overconsumption are not only deplorable labour conditions in less developed countries but also huge mountains of textile waste all over the world. [Alternatives to throw-away-fashion](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/nachhaltigkeit_02/)

CRADLE TO CRADLE The Perfect Cycle

Only one percent of all garments is currently processed into new textiles. The rest land in A landfill or are incinerated. What if textiles could be used in an endless cycle? Every part of a product would be continually reused in such a “circular economy”. The cycle begins with product design and proceeds through manufacture and use to full recycling. The result would be a world without waste. A perfect cycle. Blends are primarily impeding textile recycling at present. A textile’s different fibres have to be separated from each other before recycling. A functioning system for this does not exist yet. Recyclable clothes can already be purchased now .A new quality seal identifies them.

FUNGI, SOY, DOG WOOL The Stuff of Which the Future Is Made

What will the future of clothing and cloth look like? They ought to be recyclable and recyclable.Resource-efficient and environmentally compatible. The old, traditional fibres of the Middle Ages, such as hemp and linen, are currently back in style. Another approach is to test new materials. Natural options are diverse. A lot of experimenting is being done: Whether dog wool or soy cashmere or algae or fungus leather – the range of innovative fabrics is steadily growing wider. Which of these fabrics will become established remains to be seen. The future appears to lie in rethinking “good cloth”.Glossary Dog wool (Chiengora) is the combed out undercoat of dogs, which, like sheep wool, can be spun into fibres. Long dog wool was being processed in North America before the Spaniards introduced sheep. Soy cashmere is made out of soybean fibres, a byproduct of the foodstuff soy. Fungus leather is made out of tinder fungus, a polypore that infests deciduous trees, such as birch and beech, and can reach a diameter of up to thirty centimetres. The extracted material is very light and has a velvety surface.[Old Fibres Rediscovered](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/nachhaltigkeit_03/)

CHANGING FASHION The Fashion Revolution Has Begun

Much changed in the last decade. The Rana Plaza collapse in Bangladesh on April 24, 2013, which cost thousands of textile workers their lives, was an important wake-up call. The Fashion Revolution began. Fashion Revolution Day now takes place every year to commemorate the disaster: Consumers ask who made their clothes under #whomadeymyclothes. Textile workers all over the world answer under #imadeyourclothes. The campaign creates awareness of the people behind the clothing. There are now many initiatives for positive change in the fashion industry. And anybody can get involved. Get inspired, talk with others – and be part of the change!  

UPCYCLING A Second Chance for Old Cloth

Upcycling is the latest thing! Newspapers, blogs and internet videos show how to make something new out of used garments. Engineer Reiner Pilz coined the neologism for “up” and “recycling” back in 1994. The principle is that previously processed raw materials are reused and thus grow in value. That is resource-efficient and sustainable: a countertrend to mass-produced fast fashion products. Nearly eight million videos are available on the social media platform “TikTok” under #upcycledclothing. An old nightgown becomes a summer dress, a pair of jeans, a trendy hat. The trick is to see the cloth and not the finished garments. Old things can thus be made into new trending items. Upcycling is a hobby that creates custom garments and gives new life to old textiles.  

SLOW FASHION A Sustainable Fashion Trend

Slow fashion literally means the deceleration of the fashion industry. The principle is simple: Buy less and wear and appreciate clothes longer. If every German were to buy two new garments less a year, this would save as much greenhouse gas emissions on average as the entire German domestic airline industry produces. Alternatives to new purchases are numerous: How about secondhand clothes or swapping or renting clothing? If it has to be something new, making an informed decision is worthwhile. What is the garment’s quality? Does it go with the rest of my wardrobe? Will I be able to wear it a long time? Is it maybe even made organically or fairly? Get inspired and discover the possibilities of slow fashion! [sustainable developement goals](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/zukunftslabor_01/)

WELCOME TO THE FUTURE LAB! The Textile Industry of the Future

What will the textile and fashion industry of the future look like? A clear answer to that does not exist yet. The production, consumption and disposal of our clothing will have to change. Some brands are already opting for fair, organic production and committing to transparent supply chains. Yet nowhere near all companies are joining in this change. More services for mending or renting clothing are needed in cities. Society must rethink consumption and textiles’ worth. Legal regulations could counteract the textile industry’s problems and expedite positive change. The challenges in the textile industry can only be met, though, when government, business and society act in unison.  

SMART TEXTILES Fact and Fiction

The textiles of the future will be part of our everyday life more than ever. What sounds like something out of a science fiction film is already reality in some cases: a smart blanket that monitors patients’ bodily functions in hospitals, a jeans jacket that interacts with smartphones and clothing with embedded position sensors that make workplaces safer. The possibilities of so-called smart textiles are just now being fully tested. Scientists of today are researching what the good textiles of tomorrow will be. How do you imagine the textiles of the future? [More on Smart Textiles ](https://guterstoff.hansemuseum.eu/en/qr/zukunftslabor_02/)

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The living Book

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